Sorted Containers

Three sorted containers are provided: SortedDict, SortedMultiDict and SortedSet. SortedDict is similar to the built-in Julia type Dict with the additional feature that the keys are stored in sorted order and can be efficiently iterated in this order. SortedDict is a subtype of Associative. It is generally slower than Dict because looking up a key requires an O(log n) tree search rather than an expected O(1) hash-table lookup time as with Dict. SortedDict is a parametrized type with three parameters, the key type K, the value type V, and the ordering type O. SortedSet has only keys; it is an alternative to the built-in Set container. Internally, SortedSet is implemented as a SortedDict in which the value type is Void. Finally, SortedMultiDict is similar to SortedDict except that each key can be associated with multiple values. The key=>value pairs in a SortedMultiDict are stored according to the sorted order for keys, and key=>value pairs with the same key are stored in order of insertion.

The containers internally use a 2-3 tree, which is a kind of balanced tree and is described in many elementary data structure textbooks.

The containers require two functions to compare keys: a less-than and equals function. With the default ordering argument, the comparison functions are isless(key1,key2) (true when key1 < key2) and isequal(key1,key2) (true when key1 == key2) where key1 and key2 are keys. More details are provided below.

Tokens for Sorted Containers

The sorted container objects use a special type for indexing called a token defined as a two-entry tuple and aliased as SDToken, SMDToken, and SetToken for SortedDict, SortedMultiDict and SortedSet respectively. A token is the address of a single data item in the container and can be dereferenced in time O(1).

The first entry of a Token tuple is the container as a whole, and the second refers to the particular item. The second part is called a semitoken. The types for a semitoken are SDSemiToken, SMDSemiToken, and SetSemiToken for the three types of containers SortedDict, SortedMultiDict and SortedSet. These types are all aliases of IntSemiToken.

A restriction for the sorted containers is that IntSemiToken or its aliases cannot used as the key-type. This is because ambiguity would result between the two subscripting calls sc[k] and sc[st] described below. In the rare scenario that a sorted container whose key-type is IntSemiToken is required, a workaround is to wrap the key inside another immutable structure.

In the current version of Julia, it is costly to operate on tuples whose entries are not bits-types because such tuples are allocated on the heap. For example, the first entry of a token is a pointer to a container (a non-bits type), so a new token is allocated on the heap rather than the stack. In order to avoid performance loss, the package uses tokens less frequently than semitokens. For a function taking a token as an argument like deref described below, if it is invoked by explicitly naming the token like this:

tok = (sc,st)   # sc is a sorted container, st is a semitoken
k,v = deref(tok)

then there may be a loss of performance compared to:

k,v = deref((sc,st))

because the former needs an extra heap allocation step for tok.

The notion of token is similar to the concept of iterators used by C++ standard containers. Tokens can be explicitly advanced or regressed through the data in the sorted order; they are implicitly advanced or regressed via iteration loops defined below.

A token may take two special values: the before-start value and the past-end value. These values act as lower and upper bounds on the actual data. The before-start token can be advanced, while the past-end token can be regressed. A dereferencing operation on either leads to an error.

In the current implementation, semitokens are internally stored as integers. However, for the purpose of future compatibility, the user should not extract this internal representation; these integers do not have a documented interpretation in terms of the container.

Constructors for Sorted Containers

SortedDict constructors

SortedDict(o=Forward)

SortedDict{K,V}(o=Forward)

Construct an empty SortedDict with key type K and value type V with o ordering (default to forward ordering).

SortedDict(iter, o=Forward)

SortedDict(k1=>v1, k2=>v2, ...)

SortedDict{K,V}(o, k1=>v1, k2=>v2, ...)

SortedMultiDict constructors

SortedMultiDict(ks, vs, o)

Construct a SortedMultiDict using keys given by ks, values given by vs and ordering object o. The ordering object defaults to Forward if not specified. The two arguments ks and vs are 1-dimensional arrays of the same length in which ks holds keys and vs holds the corresponding values.

SortedMultiDict{K,D}(iter)

SortedMultiDict()

SortedMultiDict(o)

SortedMultiDict(k1=>v1, k2=>v2, ...)

SortedMultiDict(o, k1=>v1, k2=>v2, ...)

SortedMultiDict{K,D}(iter)

SortedMultiDict{K,D}(o, iter)

SortedSets constructors

SortedSet(iter, o=Forward)

SortedSet()

SortedSet(o)

SortedSet{K}()

SortedSet{K}(o)

Complexity of Sorted Containers

In the list of functions below, the running time of the various operations is provided. In these running times, n denotes the current size (number of items) in the container at the time of the function call, and c denotes the time needed to compare two keys.

Navigating the Containers

v = sd[k]

find(m::SortedDict, k_)

deref((sc, st))

Argument (sc,st) is a token (i.e., sc is a container and st is a semitoken). Note the double-parentheses in the calling syntax: the argument of deref is a token, which is defined to be a 2-tuple. This returns a key=>value pair. pointed to by the token for SortedDict and SortedMultiDict. Note that the syntax k,v=deref((sc,st)) is valid because Julia automatically iterates over the two entries of the Pair in order to assign k and v. For SortedSet this returns a key. Time: O(1)

deref_key((sc, st))

Argument (sc,st) is a token for SortedMultiDict or SortedDict. This returns the key (i.e., the first half of a key=>value pair) pointed to by the token. This functionality is available as plain deref for SortedSet. Time: O(1)

deref_value((sc, st))

Argument (sc,st) is a token for SortedMultiDict or SortedDict. This returns the value (i.e., the second half of a key=>value pair) pointed to by the token. Time: O(1)

startof(sc)

Argument sc is SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet. This function returns the semitoken of the first item according to the sorted order in the container. If the container is empty, it returns the past-end semitoken. Time: O(log n)

endof(sc)

Argument sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet. This function returns the semitoken of the last item according to the sorted order in the container. If the container is empty, it returns the before-start semitoken. Time: O(log n)

first(sc)

first(sc)

first(sc)

last(sc)

last(sc)

last(sc)

pastendsemitoken(sc)

Argument sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet. This function returns the past-end semitoken. Time: O(1)

beforestartsemitoken(sc)

Argument sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet. This function returns the before-start semitoken. Time: O(1)

advance((sc,st))

Argument (sc,st) is a token. This function returns the semitoken of the next entry in the container according to the sort order of the keys. After the last item, this routine returns the past-end semitoken. It is an error to invoke this function if (sc,st) is the past-end token. If (sc,st) is the before-start token, then this routine returns the semitoken of the first item in the sort order (i.e., the same semitoken returned by the startof function). Time: O(log n)

regress((sc,st))

Argument (sc,st) is a token. This function returns the semitoken of the previous entry in the container according to the sort order of the keys. If (sc,st) indexes the first item, this routine returns the before-start semitoken. It is an error to invoke this function if (sc,st) is the before-start token. If (sc,st) is the past-end token, then this routine returns the smitoken of the last item in the sort order (i.e., the same semitoken returned by the endof function). Time: O(log n)

searchsortedfirst(sc,k)

Argument sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet and k is a key. This routine returns the semitoken of the first item in the container whose key is greater than or equal to k. If there is no such key, then the past-end semitoken is returned. Time: O(c log n)

searchsortedlast(sc,k)

Argument sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet and k is a key. This routine returns the semitoken of the last item in the container whose key is less than or equal to k. If there is no such key, then the before-start semitoken is returned. Time: O(c log n)

searchsortedafter(sc,k)

Argument sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet and k is an element of the key type. This routine returns the semitoken of the first item in the container whose key is greater than k. If there is no such key, then the past-end semitoken is returned. Time: O(c log n)

searchequalrange(sc,k)

Argument sc is a SortedMultiDict and k is an element of the key type. This routine returns a pair of semitokens; the first of the pair is the semitoken addressing the first item in the container with key k and the second is the semitoken addressing the last item in the container with key k. If no item matches the given key, then the pair (past-end-semitoken, before-start-semitoken) is returned. Time: O(c log n)

Inserting & Deleting in Sorted Containers

empty!(sc)

Argument sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet. This empties the container. Time: O(1).

insert!(sc, k)

insert!(sc, k)

insert!(sc, k)

push!(sc, k)

push!(sc, k=>v)

push!(sc, k=>v)

delete!((sc, st))

Argument (sc,st) is a token for a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet. This operation deletes the item addressed by (sc,st). It is an error to call this on an entry that has already been deleted or on the before-start or past-end tokens. After this operation is complete, (sc,st) is an invalid token and cannot be used in any further operations. Time: O(log n)

pop!(sc, k)

pop!(sc, k)

pop!(ss)

setindex!(collection, value, key...)

sc[st] = v

Token Manipulation

compare(sc, st1, st2)

Here, st1 and st2 are semitokens for the same container sc; this function determines the relative positions of the data items indexed by (sc,st1) and (sc,st2) in the sorted order. The return value is -1 if (sc,st1) precedes (sc,st2), 0 if they are equal, and 1 if (sc,st1) succeeds (sc,st2). This function compares the tokens by determining their relative position within the tree without dereferencing them. For SortedDict it is mostly equivalent to comparing deref_key((sc,st1)) to deref_key((sc,st2)) using the ordering of the SortedDict except in the case that either (sc,st1) or (sc,st2) is the before-start or past-end token, in which case the deref operation will fail. Which one is more efficient depends on the time-complexity of comparing two keys. Similarly, for SortedSet it is mostly equivalent to comparing deref((sc,st1)) to deref((sc,st2)). For SortedMultiDict, this function is not equivalent to a key comparison since two items in a SortedMultiDict with the same key are not necessarily the same item. Time: O(log n)

status((sc, st))

This function returns 0 if the token (sc,st) is invalid (e.g., refers to a deleted item), 1 if the token is valid and points to data, 2 if the token is the before-start token and 3 if it is the past-end token. Time: O(1)

Iteration Over Sorted Containers

As is standard in Julia, iteration over the containers is implemented via calls to three functions, start, next and done. It is usual practice, however, to call these functions implicitly with a for-loop rather than explicitly, so they are presented here in for-loop notation. Internally, all of these iterations are implemented with semitokens that are advanced via the advance operation. Each iteration of these loops requires O(log n) operations to advance the semitoken. If one loops over an entire container, then the amortized cost of advancing the semitoken drops to O(1).

The following snippet loops over the entire container sc, where sc is a SortedDict or SortedMultiDict:

for (k,v) in sc
   < body >
end

In this loop, (k,v) takes on successive (key,value) pairs according to the sort order of the key. If one uses:

for p in sc
   < body >
end

where sc is a SortedDict or SortedMultiDict, then p is a k=>v pair.

For SortedSet one uses:

for k in ss
   < body >
end

There are two ways to iterate over a subrange of a container. The first is the inclusive iteration for SortedDict and SortedMultiDict:

for (k,v) in inclusive(sc,st1,st2)
  < body >
end

Here, st1 and st2 are semitokens that refer to the container sc. It is acceptable for (sc,st1) to be the past-end token or (sc,st2) to be the before-start token (in these cases, the body is not executed). If compare(sc,st1,st2)==1 then the body is not executed. A second calling format for inclusive is inclusive(sc,(st1,st2)). One purpose for second format is so that the return value of searchequalrange may be used directly as the second argument to inclusive.

One can also define a loop that excludes the final item:

for (k,v) in exclusive(sc,st1,st2)
  < body >
end

In this case, all the data addressed by tokens from (sc,st1) up to but excluding (sc,st2) are executed. The body is not executed at all if compare(sc,st1,st2)>=0. In this setting, either or both can be the past-end token, and (sc,st2) can be the before-start token. For the sake of consistency, exclusive also supports the calling format exclusive(sc,(st1,st2)). In the previous few snippets, if the loop object is p instead of (k,v), then p is a k=>v pair.

Both the inclusive and exclusive functions return objects that can be saved and used later for iteration. The validity of the tokens is not checked until the loop initiates.

For SortedSet the usage is:

for k in inclusive(ss,st1,st2)
  < body >
end

for k in exclusive(ss,st1,st2)
  < body >
end

If sc is a SortedDict or SortedMultiDict, one can iterate over just keys or just values:

for k in keys(sc)
   < body >
end

for v in values(sc)
   < body >
end

Finally, one can retrieve semitokens during any of these iterations. In the case of SortedDict and SortedMultiDict, one uses:

for (st,k,v) in semitokens(sc)
    < body >
end

for (st,k) in semitokens(keys(sc))
    < body >
end

for (st,v) in semitokens(values(sc))
    < body >
end

In each of the above three iterations, st is a semitoken referring to the current (k,v) pair. In the case of SortedSet, the following iteration may be used:

for (st,k) in semitokens(ss)
    < body >
end

If one wishes to retrieve only semitokens, the following may be used:

for st in onlysemitokens(sc)
    < body >
end

In this case, sc is a SortedDict, SortedMultiDict, or SortedSet. To be compatible with standard containers, the package also offers eachindex iteration:

for ind in eachindex(sc)
    < body >
end

This iteration function eachindex is equivalent to keys in the case of SortedDict. It is equivalent to onlysemitokens in the case of SortedMultiDict and SortedSet.

In place of sc in the above keys, values and semitokens, snippets, one could also use inclusive(sc,st1,st2) or exclusive(sc,st1,st2). Similarly, for SortedSet, one can iterate over semitokens(inclusive(ss,st1,st2)) or semitokens(exclusive(ss,st1,st2))

Note that it is acceptable for the loop body in the above semitokens code snippets to invoke delete!((sc,st)) or delete!((ss,st)). This is because the for-loop internal state variable is already advanced to the next token at the beginning of the body, so st is not necessarily referred to in the loop body (unless the user refers to it).

Other Functions

isempty(sc)

Returns true if the container is empty (no items). Time: O(1)

length(sc)

Returns the length, i.e., number of items, in the container. Time: O(1)

in(pr::Pair, m::SortedDict{K,D,Ord}) where {K,D,Ord <: Ordering}

in(x, iter)

Returns true if x is in iter, where iter refers to any of the iterable objects described above in the discussion of container loops and x is of the appropriate type. For all of the iterables except the five listed below, the algorithm used is a linear-time search. For example, the call:

(k=>v) in exclusive(sd, st1, st2)

where sd is a SortedDict, st1 and st2 are semitokens, k is a key, and v is a value, will loop over all entries in the dictionary between the two tokens and a compare for equality using isequal between the indexed item and k=>v.

The five exceptions are:

(k=>v) in sd
(k=>v) in smd
k in ss
k in keys(sd)
k in keys(smd)

Here, sd is a SortedDict, smd is a SortedMultiDict, and ss is a SortedSet.

These five invocations of in use the index structure of the sorted container and test equality based on the order object of the keys rather than isequal. Therefore, these five are all faster than linear-time looping. The first three were already discussed in the previous entry. The last two are equivalent to haskey(sd,k) and haskey(smd,k) respectively. To force the use of isequal test on the keys rather than the order object (thus slowing the execution from logarithmic to linear time), replace the above five constructs with these:

(k=>v) in collect(sd)
(k=>v) in collect(smd)
k in collect(ss)
k in collect(keys(sd))
k in collect(keys(smd))

eltype(sc)

eltype(sc)

eltype(sc)

keytype(type)

julia> keytype(Dict(Int32(1) => "foo"))
Int32

keytype(sc)

keytype(sc)

keytype(sc)

valtype(type)

julia> valtype(Dict(Int32(1) => "foo"))
String

valtype(sc)

valtype(sc)

ordtype(sc)

ordtype(sc)

ordtype(sc)

similar(array, [element_type=eltype(array)], [dims=size(array)])

julia> similar(1:10, 1, 4)
1×4 Array{Int64,2}:
 4419743872  4374413872  4419743888  0

julia> similar(trues(10,10), 2)
2-element BitArray{1}:
 false
 false

julia> similar(falses(10), Float64, 2, 4)
2×4 Array{Float64,2}:
 2.18425e-314  2.18425e-314  2.18425e-314  2.18425e-314
 2.18425e-314  2.18425e-314  2.18425e-314  2.18425e-314

similar(sc)

similar(sc)

similar(sc)

orderobject(sc)

haskey(sc,k)

get(collection, key, default)

julia> d = Dict("a"=>1, "b"=>2);

julia> get(d, "a", 3)
1

julia> get(d, "c", 3)
3

get!(collection, key, default)

julia> d = Dict("a"=>1, "b"=>2, "c"=>3);

julia> get!(d, "a", 5)
1

julia> get!(d, "d", 4)
4

julia> d
Dict{String,Int64} with 4 entries:
  "c" => 3
  "b" => 2
  "a" => 1
  "d" => 4

getkey(sd,k,defaultk)

isequal(sc1,sc2)

packcopy(sc)

packcopy(sc)

packcopy(sc)

deepcopy(sc)

This returns a copy of sc in which the data is deep-copied, i.e., the keys and values are replicated if they are mutable types. A semitoken for the original sc is a valid semitoken for the copy because this operation preserves the relative positions of the data in memory. Time O(maxn), where maxn denotes the maximum size that sc has attained in the past.

packdeepcopy(sc)

packdeepcopy(sc)

packdeepcopy(sc)

merge(sc1, sc2...)

merge!(sc, sc1...)

Set operations

The SortedSet container supports the following set operations. Note that in the case of intersect, symdiff and setdiff, the two SortedSets should have the same key and ordering object. If they have different key or ordering types, no error message is produced; instead, the built-in default versions of these functions (that can be applied to Any iterables and that return arrays) are invoked.

union!(ss, iterable)

union(ss, iterable...)

intersect(ss, others...)

symdiff(ss1, ss2)

setdiff(ss1, ss2)

setdiff!(ss, iterable)

issubset(iterable, ss)

Ordering of keys

As mentioned earlier, the default ordering of keys uses isless and isequal functions. If the default ordering is used, it is a requirement of the container that isequal(a,b) is true if and only if !isless(a,b) and !isless(b,a) are both true. This relationship between isequal and isless holds for common built-in types, but it may not hold for all types, especially user-defined types. If it does not hold for a certain type, then a custom ordering argument must be defined as discussed in the next few paragraphs.

The name for the default ordering (i.e., using isless and isequal) is Forward. Note: this is the name of the ordering object; its type is ForwardOrdering. Another possible ordering object is Reverse, which reverses the usual sorted order. This name must be imported import Base.Reverse if it is used.

As an example of a custom ordering, suppose the keys are of type String, and the user wishes to order the keys ignoring case: APPLE, berry and Cherry would appear in that order, and APPLE and aPPlE would be indistinguishable in this ordering.

The simplest approach is to define an ordering object of the form Lt(my_isless), where Lt is a built-in type (see ordering.jl) and my_isless is the user's comparison function. In the above example, the ordering object would be:

Lt((x,y) -> isless(lowercase(x),lowercase(y)))

The ordering object is indicated in the above list of constructors in the o position (see above for constructor syntax).

This approach suffers from a performance hit (10%-50% depending on the container) because the compiler cannot inline or compute the correct dispatch for the function in parentheses, so the dispatch takes place at run-time. A more complicated but higher-performance method to implement a custom ordering is as follows. First, the user creates a singleton type that is a subtype of Ordering as follows:

struct CaseInsensitive <: Ordering
end

Next, the user defines a method named lt for less-than in this ordering:

lt(::CaseInsensitive, a, b) = isless(lowercase(a), lowercase(b))

The first argument to lt is an object of the CaseInsensitive type (there is only one such object since it is a singleton type). The container also needs an equal-to function; the default is:

eq(o::Ordering, a, b) = !lt(o, a, b) && !lt(o, b, a)

For a further slight performance boost, the user can also customize this function with a more efficient implementation. In the above example, an appropriate customization would be:

eq(::CaseInsensitive, a, b) = isequal(lowercase(a), lowercase(b))

Finally, the user specifies the unique element of CaseInsensitive, namely the object CaseInsensitive(), as the ordering object to the SortedDict, SortedMultiDict or SortedSet constructor.

For the above code to work, the module must make the following declarations, typically near the beginning:

import Base.Ordering
import Base.lt
import DataStructures.eq

Cautionary note on mutable keys

As with ordinary Dicts, keys for the sorted containers can be either mutable or immutable. In the case of mutable keys, it is important that the keys not be mutated once they are in the container else the indexing structure will be corrupted. (The same restriction applies to Dict.) For example, suppose a SortedDict sd is defined in which the keys are of type Array{Int,1}. (For this to be possible, the user must provide an isless function or order object for Array{Int,1} since none is built into Julia.) Suppose the values of sd are of type Int. Then the following sequence of statements leaves sd in a corrupted state:

k = [1,2,3]
sd[k] = 19
k[1] = 7

Performance of Sorted Containers

The sorted containers are currently not optimized for cache performance. This will be addressed in the future.

There is a minor performance issue as follows: the container may hold onto a small number of keys and values even after the data records containing those keys and values have been deleted. This may cause a memory drain in the case of large keys and values. It may also lead to a delay in the invocation of finalizers. All keys and values are released completely by the empty! function.